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The Recidivism Rate of Sex Offenders among Prepubescent Children in the United States Compared to Other Developed Countries
Abstract
Different study articles have demonstrated different views regarding recidivism among juvenile sexual offenders. Recidivism rates among prepubescent sexual offenders vary in different countries. This paper analyzes various studies done on the recidivism rate among sexual offenders. Various secondary sources have been used to provide data for the critical literature review. The cognitive-behavioral method has been provided as the preferred intervention to reduce the recidivism rate among sexual offenders.
Introduction
Sexual abuse is greatly disturbing and is usually linked to undesirable long-term psychological and physical impacts on the victim. Worries regarding sexual abuse have driven the implementation of policies and hospital practices that hugely limit sexual offenders. Such practices have been put in place under the proposition that clinicians can correctly predict a person who is likely to re-offend, even though it is not necessarily the case. Research on sexual offenses among adolescents proposes that even though most sexual offenders do not re-offend in their twenties, about 9 to 15 percent continue to offend (Chu & Thomas 2010). Recidivism refers to adopting criminal behavior after a past conviction with the same or a different offense. Additionally, studies suggest that roughly half of the post-pubescent sexual criminals revealed that they first committed their sexual crime while in adolescence (Chu & Thomas 2010).
Moreover, most studies point out that adolescent sexual offenders faced the criminal justice system while aged 12 or 13. Such offenders stated that they had considerable criminal histories and other behavioral issues. Some researchers suggest that teenager sexual offenders are more likely to participate in non-sexual offenses than sexual crimes (Rich & John Wiley & Sons, 2016). Besides, some studies hypothesize a person is not necessarily always a sexual offender, although he/she was an offender at some point in their life (Hanson, Harris, Letourneau, Helmus, & Thornton, 2018). On the other hand, other researchers believe that a significant number of adolescent sexual offenders develop unusual sexual interests, which make them sexually aggressive, constituting antisocial behavior. Such behavior is the major risk factor for sexual recidivism in adulthood (Chu & Thomas, 2010). The paper addresses major issues in childhood sexual offenses, recidivism rates among childhood sexual offenders, and counseling interventions to address such issues.
Literature Review
Definition of terms
Child Sexual Abusers: Child sexual abuse can be described as the application of force or sexual coercion on a victim aged below 13 years, and the age gap between the wrongdoer and the victim is at least 5 years. It can also refer to the use of force or coercion to an individual aged 13 to 16 years, and the age gap between the offender and the victim is at least 10 years. Coercion does not mean the use of threats, but child sexual abusers often create a manipulative relationship with a child (Dubowitz, 2017). Abusers mostly end up coercing the child to give in to their sexual desires and comply with the sexual act. Notably, the primary defining characteristic of child sexual abuse is the offender’s belief that the act was mutual and the child complied (Many, 2018).
Pedophilic and Non-Pedophilic Discrepancy: The essential discrepancy among child sexual offenders is pedophilic or non-pedophilic. Understanding the differences between pedophilia and non-pedophilia is crucial because the former is highly associated with sexual recidivism. Notably, all child sexual offenders are not pedophiles. Pedophilia is described as having a sexual interest for kids that could or could not lead to child sexual abuse, such as watching child pornography (Moen, & Sterri, 2018). In contrast, child sexual abuse entails having a sexual; relationship with a child that is may or may not arise from pedophilia. To be diagnosed with pedophilia, a person should have repetitive, strong, and sexually arousing imaginations or behavioral traits that are focused on a prepubescent child for a period of 6 months, should have acted to satisfy those desires or have been troubled by them, and should be at least 16 years old and 5 years older than the victim.
Prevalence of Sexual Abuse
The pervasiveness of child sexual abuse is not easy to define because most occurrences are not reported. Researchers perceive that the rate of sexual abuse among children in the US is far more than the criminal justice system cases. A study done by the US Department of Health and Human Services’ Children Bureau deduced that 9.2 percent of mistreated kids were sexually molested. Additionally, individual-report investigations illustrate that about 20% and 10% of adult females and males respectively reported being sexually assaulted in their childhood. Studies by David Finkelhor further illustrate that about 16% of teenagers aged 14 to 17 years are sexually assaulted in one year. Children aged between 7 to 13 years are mostly exposed to sexual victimization (National Center for Victims of Crimes, n.d.). Moreover, molested girls are assaulted by males (88.4%), whereas boys are assaulted by both males (45.6% and females (54.4%) (Gewirtz-Meydan, & Finkelhor, 2020).
In other studies, such as those done by the Bureau of Justice, 1.6 percent of children between 12 and 17 have encountered sexual abuse. A 1986 study concluded that 63% of adult sexual assault victims reported sexual abuse after the age of 14years. Recent research that was done in 2000, 2002, and 2005 propose the same findings. Furthermore, studies indicate that kids who had rape or sexual abuse encounters in their pubescent years are 13.7 times more likely to encounter sexual assault during their first year in tertiary institutions (National Center for Victims of Crimes, n.d.). Child sexual abuse results in low self-esteem, distorted perception of sex, and insignificance among the victims. A child sexual assault victim grows distant from and lacks trust in adults or other children if they faced the abuse in the hands of an older kid (Krahé, & Berger, 2017).
Recidivism among sexual offenders
Adolescent sexual offenders have attracted too much attention from both the public and the policymakers. Initially, such offenders were perceived with the notion that “boys will always be boys.” Nevertheless, in some studies done in the 1970s and 1980s that demonstrated reflective interviews with adult sexual offenders, several adults stated that they started engaging in sexual offenses while in adolescence (Lobanov-Rostovsky, 2015). The results prompted the policymakers and experts to invest more time in juvenile sexual offenders to prevent them from re-offending. Sexual offenders are more inclined to engage in non-sexual re-offenses (Rich, & John Wiley & Sons 2016).
Lobanov-Rostovsky (2015) researched the recidivism rate among juvenile sexual offenders and utilized single studies and meta-analysis. The initial meta-analysis analyzed results from 76 studies conducted between 1943 and 1996—the total samples comprised 1025 teenagers who had committed sexual offenses. The average recidivism rate among juvenile sexual offenders was found to be 5% for the investigations with a single year of follow up, 22% for the studies that did 3 years of follow up, and 7% for those that utilized over five years of follow up. A second meta-analysis comprising nine studies and 2986 samples found out that a sexual recidivism rate was 13%, a non-sexual but violent recidivism rate was 25%, and non-sexual and non-violent recidivism incidences were 29%. The studies were based on a follow-up of 59 months. Another meta-analysis evaluated 63 studies, and a total of 11219 samples indicated a sexual recidivism rate of 7 percent and a non-sexual recidivism rate of 43% (Lobanov-Rostovsky, 2015). The studies were based on 59 months follow-up for juveniles who had committed sexual offenses. The meta-analysis done by the criminal justice system is reliable; however, they could have used more recent studies to indicate the trends in the rate of recidivism.
A study done by Chu & Thomas (2010) in Singapore indicated that over a third of juveniles charged with sexual offenses re-offended over the course of 11.5 years follow up. The study also showed that violent recidivism was more common among the sample population (adolescent sexual offenders). Additionally, the study suggested nine of the male samples re-offended during their preliminary court orders. Two offenders were re-condemned on numerous events during the 11.5 years follow up. The study comprised adolescent males with an average of 15 years and charged or convicted with a sexual offense. The sample population was classified into two: generalists and specialists. The generalists were juvenile offenders arrested for and convicted with sexual and non-sexual crimes previously and/or have undergone psychological examination. Specialists were the juvenile offenders who had been charged and convicted with sexual crimes, have not previously been charged with non-sexual offenses, and have not undergone psychological examination. The number of generalists was 77, while that of specialists was 71 (Chu & Thomas, 2010).
However, the study had various limitations, which could have biased the findings. First, the study was a retrospective study that depended on information collected by several data sources that were not particularly collected for research purposes. Thus, there were several gaps in various variables, which could have tampered with the quality of the findings. Additionally, the study was based on 11.5 years’ follow-up, which is a very long time. The researchers could have utilized a regular follow up after every 2 years to ensure the results’ accuracy.
According to Chu & Thomas (2010), generalists can be evaluated particularly for their potential for sexual offending by paying attention to distorted sexual interests, past behavior disorders, and disorderly disposition elements if defined early in their offending profession. The approach could be specifically essential in identifying the dangers generalists pose relative to sexually re-offending in adulthood. Additionally, there should be an accurate evaluation of violence predisposition among the generalists because individuals might pay more attention to sexual re-offenses and neglect non-sexual re-offenses.
On the other hand, Caldwell (2016) suggests that the recidivism rate has decreased over a few decades. For instance, the Minnesota Department of Corrections stated a reduction by 85% in the 3-year sexual verdict occurrences amongst post-pubescent delinquents from 1990 to 2002. The Wisconsin Department of Corrections stated a reduction by 74.1% in a 3-year sexual re-offending rate among post-pubescent sexual wrongdoers from 1992 and 2010. The reduction in sexual recidivism incidences reflects an overall decrease in sexual violence, particularly and general violence that has taken place in the past two decades. The 2015 report given by the Federal Bureau of Investigation indicated a 41 percent decrease in violent crime offenses from 19990 and 2009. Adolescents have also contributed to the decrease (Caldwell, 2016). The reports from the Federal Bureau of Investigation demonstrate that the number of adolescents’ convictions for sexual crimes has been decreasing in the past decades.
Best Practices
Counselling Intervention
Sexual offender treatment is effective in reducing the recidivism rate (Schmucker & Lösel, 2017). The most common treatment intervention for offenders is cognitive behavior therapy. CBT is founded on the cognitive assumption that altered perceptions are a usual symptom of every psychological disorder and that such perceptions affect an individual’s emotions and behaviors. CBT is built on the belief that an individual’s perceptions, attitudes, and principles define their emotions and encounters in all human interactions. The therapy guides that for an individual to change his/her experiences, emotions, or behavior, he/she should investigate and modify his/her thoughts and attitudes. CBT utilizes various approaches to help the person in question critically evaluate the association between his/her perceptions and the ensuing moods and conduct. CBT uses approaches such as remodeling of distorted thoughts, behavioral practices, and role-play. Various skills are also taught to supplement the subject’s cognition and conduct, for instance, recognizing and assessing automatic perceptions, recognizing emotions, problem-solving skills, decision-making skills, and activity-observing and development. Moreover, the majority of cognitive behavior therapies entail providing assignments for the client to finish in between sessions (Yates, 2016).
The primary objective of applying cognitive behavior therapy among juvenile sexual offenders is to prevent recidivism (Ye et al., 2016). However, there are several other purposes of CBT that therapists should understand. For instance, therapists should help the offender reacquire a feeling of self-worth to enable the offender to have a meaningful life after prison life. Hence, a therapist should first conduct a detailed therapy that protects society and encourages the offender. Particular elements are comprised of almost all CBT for sexual offenders, including treatment of thought alterations, coaching on empathy, as well as social skills. Additionally, the execution of mood management, certain basics of anger management, and unusual sexual interests are also included in cognitive-behavioral therapies.
The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing recidivism among sexual offenders has been supported by several studies, such as the study done by Mpofu, Athanasou, Rafe, & Belshaw (2018) to illustrate the efficacy of CBT on minimizing recidivism rates. The study related recidivism incidents of medium and high sexual wrongdoers who were given cognitive behavioral therapy counseling intervention. The researchers selected empirical studies between 2001 and 2004 that satisfied the given criteria: first, the counseling intervention program entailed CBT with comparative interventions. Second, the study sample comprised post-pubescent male, moderate, and high-risk sexual wrongdoers. Lastly, the empirical study selected consisted of one-year follow-up data. Statistical analysis was done using a summative metric to compare recidivism rates (N = 3073 for CBT and N = 3588 for comparison tactic). Recidivism rates for sexual offenses ranged within 0.6 percent and 21.8 percent with CBT and within 4.5 percent to 32.3 percent with comparison intervention. The results also illustrated that sexual offenders had a universal felony median recidivism frequency of 27.05 percent with CBT and 51.05 percent with the comparison. Generally, the study proposed that cognitive-behavioral therapy effectively prevents recidivism among sexual offenders (Mpofu, Athanasou, Rafe, & Belshaw, 2018).
Providing behavioral health services for juveniles in the United States lack accessibility and quality. The adoption of CBT requires innovativeness at different levels; individual and organizational level. Communication strategies used are essentially important in the implementation of CBT intervention for sexual criminals. Institutions, correctional facilities, and other agencies need to invest more in training behavioral therapists. Supporting reforming offenders would help augment the intervention.
Needs Assessment
Stakeholders
The stakeholders will be juvenile sex offenders, family members of offenders who have undergone CBT, and cognitive-behavioral therapists.
Interview questions
For juveniles
- How many cognitive behavioral therapy sessions have you had so far?
- How do you feel about the sessions?
- How well did you control your emotions before therapy?
- How well can you control your emotions after therapy?
For clinicians
- Do you usually conduct follow-up after the end of the session? If yes, what changes do you notice on the subject?
- Has any of your juvenile clients re-offended?
- Why do you think the intervention is effective?
Family members
- How would you describe the offender’s behavior after undergoing CBT?
- How many years has the offender stayed without re-offending?
- How would you describe their mental health and cognition?
Program Evaluation
Research Participant Informed Consent Form
Brief description
The primary aim of this investigation is to determine the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing recidivism among sexual offenders. The research volunteers will be asked to answer a few open-ended interview questions, which will take approximately 15 minutes of your time. The volunteers will be asked to provide personal information and recall their past experiences, which can be disturbing for some people. No direct rewards or benefits will be provided for the participants. Please review the rest of the information in this letter before deciding if you want to participate.
My name is (insert your name), a Masters student at the University of Mary Washington asking for your consent to partake in this investigational study. Participating in this study is completely voluntary, so you can decide whether to take part or not. Consult if you have any queries regarding the study before deciding to participate.
Details of Participant Involvement
My study is about recidivism among juvenile sexual offenders and the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing recidivism. If you volunteer, you will be asked to answer a few interview questions and provide some personal information.
Privacy and Confidentiality
All the participants’ info will be kept anonymous, meaning that personal details such as your name will not be used in data collection or report writing. No single person will be able to relate you with your info. All of the participants’ data will be destroyed once the study is complete.
Risks and Benefits of Participation
The risk for volunteering in this investigation may include revisiting your past. Such risks will be lessened by asking fewer questions about the participant’s past and providing a safe environment to answer questions. In case you experience any problems while engaging in the study, please inform me as soon as possible so that I can take proper action. The study is beneficial because it may increase the general understanding of cognitive behavior therapy. However, no direct benefits are available for the participants.
Participant Rights
There is no restriction regarding asking questions. There are no benefits or losses tied to participation or lack of participation. You have the freedom to refuse to engage in any activity or answer questions that make you uncomfortable. This study has been permitted by the University of Mary Washington Institutional Review Board, a committee charged with ensuring that the safety and rights of study participants are maintained. For inquiries concerning your rights as an investigation volunteer, contact the IRB chair, Dr. ____name______ (insert email)
Contact Information
Contact me (insert school email) or my university instructor, Dr. ____name______ (insert email) if you have any inquiries. Report any unintended challenges associated with the study my university instructor, Dr. ____name______ (insert email).
To be Completed by Participant
I have keenly read and understood all the provisions in this letter, and all of my queries and apprehensions regarding the study have been tackled. I, therefore, voluntarily decide to take part in this project. I confirm that I am above 18 years old.
Print name of the participant
Signature of participant Date
To be completed by Researcher.
I certify that the partaker named above was given the liberty to present queries regarding the research. Every query has been addressed to the best of my understanding and capability. Every participant has been given a copy of this consent letter, and I will remain with the original for at least 3 years.
Print name of the investigator
Signature of investigator Date
Type of data to be collected
The primary data to be collected, the study will be qualitative data. Qualitative data is preferred because it is easy to understand, cost-effective because it utilizes a smaller sample size, and it provides perceptions that are specific to the objective. Additionally, it is mostly open-ended; thus, the participants can answer questions in their own words. The data would be collected at the beginning of the project, and it will be a continuous process to ensure the project’s success.
Participants
The main study participants will be juvenile offenders, cognitive-behavioral therapists, and family members. The volunteers in juvenile should be convicted of a sex offense and receiving CBT. The family member chosen should be a close relative and be above 18 years old. The therapists should have provided cognitive-behavioral therapies for at least two juvenile sexual offenders.
Statistical approach
The descriptive statistical approach will be used in the study. The statistical approach is easy to conduct, and it provides insights that can be the basis for further qualitative examination. Additionally, the method is less associated with bias because it provides a wider image of the events (Mishra, Pandey, Singh, Gupta, Sahu, & Keshri, 2019). However, the method is associated with a lack of confidentiality among the participants, making them inaccurate.
References
Caldwell, M. F. (2016). Quantifying the decline in juvenile sexual recidivism rates. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 22(4), 414. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2016-35228-001?mod=article_inline
Chu, C. M., & Thomas, S. D. (2010). Adolescent sexual offenders: The relationship between typology and recidivism. Sexual Abuse, 22(2), 218-233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210369011
Dubowitz, H. (2017). Child sexual abuse and exploitation—A global glimpse. Child abuse & neglect, 66, 2-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.011
Gewirtz-Meydan, A., & Finkelhor, D. (2020). Sexual abuse and assault in a large national sample of children and adolescents. Child maltreatment, 25(2), 203-214. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559519873975
Hanson, R. K., Harris, A. J. R., Letourneau, E., Helmus, L. M., & Thornton, D. (2018). Reductions in risk based on time offense-free in the community: Once a sexual offender, not always a sexual offender. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 24(1), 48–63. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000135
Krahé, B., & Berger, A. (2017). Gendered pathways from child sexual abuse to sexual aggression victimization and perpetration in adolescence and young adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 63, 261-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.10.004
Lobanov-Rostovsky, C. (2015, July). Recidivism of Juveniles Who Commit Sexual Offenses. Retrieved from SOMAPI RESEARCH BRIEF: https://smart.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh231/files/media/document/juvenilerecidivism.pdf
Many, M. M. (2018). Child sexual abuse. Violence and Trauma in the Lives of Children [2 volumes], 121.
Mishra, P., Pandey, C. M., Singh, U., Gupta, A., Sahu, C., & Keshri, A. (2019). Descriptive statistics and normality tests for statistical data. Annals of cardiac anesthesia, 22(1), 67. doi: 10.4103/aaca.ACA_157_18
Moen, O. M., & Sterri, A. B. (2018). Pedophilia and computer-generated child pornography. In The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophy and Public Policy (pp. 369-381). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-93907-0_29
Mpofu, E., Athanasou, J. A., Rafe, C., & Belshaw, S. H. (2018). Cognitive-behavioral therapy efficacy for reducing recidivism rates of moderate-and high-risk sexual offenders: A scoping systematic literature review. International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology, 62(1), 170-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X16644501
National Center for Victims of Crimes. (n.d.). Child Sexual Abuse Statistics. Retrieved from National Center for Victims of Crimes: https://victimsofcrime.org/child-sexual-abuse-statistics/
Rich, P., & John Wiley & Sons. (, 2016). Understanding, assessing, and rehabilitating juvenile sexual offenders. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. 2nd edition.
Thornton, D., Ambroziak, G., Kahn, R. E., & Mundt, J. (2018). Advances in the assessment of sexual deviance. Current psychiatry reports, 20(8), 55. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-018-0918-7
Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2017). Sexual offender treatment for reducing recidivism among convicted sex offenders: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 13(1), 1-75. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2017.8
Yates, P. M. (2016). Models of sexual offender treatment. In Sexual Offending (pp. 591-604). Springer, New York, NY. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4939-2416-5_27
Ye, B. Y., Jiang, Z. Y., Li, X., Cao, B., Cao, L. P., Lin, Y., … & Miao, G. D. (2016). Effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating bipolar disorder: An updated meta‐analysis with randomized controlled trials. Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 70(8), 351-361. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12399