The Paper That Need Editing

 

Table of Content

1. Introduction…………….
2. Background
3. Rationale
4. Scope
5. Significance
6. Research question
7. Literature review

• Methods

1. Findings and discussion
2. Recommendation and conclusion

 

REFLEXIVE AND EMPHATIC USES OF SELF-FORMS IN ENGLISH

 A CORPUS-BASED STUDY

DISTINCTIVE SYNTACTICAL AND SEMANTIC PROPERTIES DEMONSTRATED BY AUTHENTIC SAMPLES

 

• INTRODUCTION

1. Background

Reflexive or self-pronouns make up an inherent part of the reflexive constructions in English. Sometimes, a sentence has a subject and object as the same thing. An example is; I love myself. I represent the subject and also the item in the sentence. A person can phrase the word as either a direct or indirect object in the sentence. They have a dual function in the sentence: as indicators of reflexivity and as intensifiers used for emphasis. In both cases, they express the relation between the event participants that refer to the same entity. Most linguists view this type of pronouns as indicators of reflexivity, but in the meantime, stressing their emphatic use in exceptional cases. It is also worth mentioning that some linguists single out reflexive pronouns used in the second function as emphatic pronouns (Mkhitaryan & Bazikyan, 2016).

Numerous studies on reflexivity in English are aware of such a functional difference and distinguish a ‘basic,’ ‘proper’ or ‘reflexive’ use of reflexive pronouns from an ’emphatic’ service. Furthermore, this difference also sheds light on the distinctive features unique to each use of reflexives, underpinning the research into the characteristic properties of different self-pronouns’ benefits in English. Nevertheless, one should not misconstrue the two subclasses derived from the two other functions as two separate types of reflexive pronouns: they are, for lack of a better expression, two sides of the same coin. That is to say, though distinctions between the two subgroups can indeed be drawn, they are not different varieties of pronouns.

Aligned with this notion, apt terms used vary. Many have termed the self-pronouns indicating reflexivity ‘reflexive pronouns proper’, ‘reflexive pronouns’ or ‘anaphora,’ etc. in contrast with the other subgroup termed ‘intensifiers,’ ’emphatic pronouns’ or ’emphatic reflexive pronouns’ etc.. For the sake of simplicity and clarity, the paper shall use the two terms ‘reflexive pronouns proper’ and ‘emphatic reflexive pronouns’ for the two subclasses.

2. Rationale

A further examination of reflexive pronouns proper and emphatic reflexive pronouns reveals that even though they are quite identical morphologically, emphatic reflexive pronouns do not enter the relationship with their antecedent as subject and object like common reflexive pronouns. Furthermore, as they are used as intensifiers, their function is limited by imparting a special emphasis on the element of the utterance they are co-referent with. This serves to prove that there exist distinctive features separating the two subgroups which transcend their difference in function.

It is also widely accepted that the principles of classification of parts of speech take into consideration not only the functional but also semantic and structural criteria (Lehmann, 2010). This, therefore, calls for an in-depth analysis of the structural and semantic characteristics of the two sub-categories display.

3. Scope

Due to limitations regarding the paper’s requirements, the study shall focus primarily on the specific structural and semantic features that the two sub-groups reveal in the constructions they make part of, particularly the properties demonstrated by samples taken from authentic, reliable and valid sources.

There are different semantic features in a sentence. A sentence can have other characteristics depending on how a person interprets the contents of a sentence. As long as a punishment is correct, various semantic features help show where a sentence can be grouped. An example is that in a sentence, there can be the same contents but different semantic structures. Linguists group a sentence to show where it lies according to the semantic network.

Significance

The paper first intends to provide further insight into the structure and semantics of reflexive pronouns in English in general and its two prominent subclasses in particular. Hence, it can inform users of reflexive pronouns the distinctive characteristics of the two different uses, which, in turn, promotes more proper and effective employment of self-pronouns.

4. Research question

        The study aims to answer the question, “What are the distinctive syntactical and semantic properties of the reflexive pronouns proper and emphatic reflexive pronouns in English?”.

 

• LITERATURE REVIEW

Reflexive and emphatic pronouns have been a subject of several types of research of which the most substantial works (both empirical and theoretical) underpinning the framework of this study belong to:

 

1. Moyne, J. (1971). Reflexive and Emphatic. Language,47(1), 141-163.

A detailed study of the reflexive and emphatic particles and some comparison with other languages, it is suggested that spontaneous and decisive. Intuitive language involves the action and the doer. In the speech, each step is accompanied by the person responsible for completing the task. Emphatic language, on the other hand, emphasizes the action. The action is present and well explained to ensure that a person differentiates between action and doer.

Connors, K., & Ouellette, B. (1994). Linguistic Awareness of English Emphatic-self. Mid-America Linguistics Conference.

As a research project, the reflexive constructions have been traditionally examined in French and English, particularly the involuntary vs emphatic readings of English-self constructions. The results of the study indicate a pervasive asymmetry between intuitive and assertive readings of self-constructions.

2. König, Ekkehard, and Gast, (2002). Reflexive pronouns and other uses of self-forms in English, 1-14.

A lot of study shows different forms of reflexive nouns, and each one has a meaning. The meaning of reflexive nouns depends on what a person wants to express in a sentence. Reflexive pronouns have morphological makeup and a syntactic structure; hence people should ensure that they do not confuse between the two.

Stern, N. (2004). The semantic unity of reflexive, emphatic and other self-pronouns, 79 (3): 270–280.

In contrast to studies that have focused on the syntactic properties of English -self pronouns (myself yourself, etc.), this paper investigates the semantic and pragmatic contributions these firms make in different structural contexts, including not only appositive uses but also reflexives and a wide variety of so-called exceptional services. An extensive examination of data from a collection of spoken and written texts reveals that -self pronouns in different structural environments nevertheless exhibit the same semantic and pragmatic characteristics.

 

• METHODS

As the paper aims to examine the syntactic and semantic behaviours of reflexive constructions from a qualitative perspective, secondary data collection tools are employed. This includes reviewing, analyzing and synthesizing the primary and secondary sources of data such as public and archival records as well as the existing body of theoretical and empirical studies and articles in the field of English reflexive pronouns.

Corpus-based approach derived from the corpus linguistics method is also adopted.  According to Tognini-Bonelli (2001), the approach typically uses corpus data to explore a theory or hypothesis, aiming to validate it, refute it or refine it.

In terms of the type of data collected in the corpus, the monitor corpus approach is used. A monitor corpus approach is a method that grows with time and everything changes as time moves. Monitor corpus helps a linguist or reader to be in a very good position to study language. During the study, people are able to make mistakes in some words, group words which are similar and form examples of words in a similar group. (McEnery & Hardie, 2012).

 

• FINDINGS & DISCUSSIONS

1. Reflexive Pronouns Proper

Reflexive pronouns proper are self-forms used to indicate that a sematic or syntactic argument of a predicate is co-referent with another argument of the same predicate (a co-argument), typically with the subject (König, Ekkehard, and Gast, 2002).

• Syntactic properties of reflexive pronouns proper

The relation with their co-referents characterizes the syntax of reflexive pronouns proper. Syntactically, this relation can be qualified as the relation between the subject and the object, respectively (König, Ekkehard &Gast, 2002).  Distinctive features regarding this can be stated as follows:

• They are in full co-reference with their subjects (both explicit and implicit ones). Consider these sentences:

 Jane chains herself to the gate. (Poppy, 1990)

 Most people with the same last name as myself are black, but my last name is not also a colour. (Henry, 2012)

In the first example, the reflexive pronoun proper is co-referent fully with the subject: Jane=herself. The subject, in this case, is explicit, and the antecedent of the reflexive is also contained within the same clause with the reflexive. The subject or the co-referent in the second case, however, is situationally implied. The phrase “In fact” indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the utterance; therefore, it is inherently in association with the first person (I) and a co-reference is then also implied: (I)=myself.

 

• They may occur in the different finite clause:

Short of searching CERN’s entire complex himself, are: no mercy for Sylvie knew there was only one other way to get the director’s attention. (Brown, 2009)

As the example shows, the reflexive pronoun proper is co-referential with the subject occurring in the other clause of the composite sentence.

 

• The reflexive pronoun may be replaced by the personal pronoun in the objective case without any considerable semantic change of meaning:

They were more concerned with the needs and problems of people like yourself.  (NYT, 1991)

 This sentence can easily be transformed into “They were more concerned with the needs and problems of people like you.”  The difference may be explained by the fact that the reflexive pronoun ascribes more prominence, more social weight to the subject and according to R. Carter and M. McCarthy, constructions with reflexive pronouns sound more polite compared to those with personal pronouns.

 

• The reflexive pronoun proper ‘itself’ (in idiomatic expressions) is co-referent with the predicative expressed by an abstract noun:

When we hear suffering connected with nobility and dignity, it is not the suffering and pain itself that is noble and dignified, but the person who is resisting the suffering and pain. (Gudorf, 1998)

As shown above, the predicative expressed by the abstract nouns “suffering” and “pain” is co-referent with the reflexive “itself”.

• Semantic properties of the reflexive pronouns proper

The analysis of semantic meanings of the reflexive pronouns proper examines the forms and the extent of affectedness the reflexive pronouns proper is subjected as a result of the action expressed by the verbs or caused by the subject (Hopper & Thompson, 1980).

• They express radical physical effect, as indicated in the following sentence:

Difference. I can’t make it any different. Not unless I kill myself. Maybe I will. Maybe I’ll do it and be done with it. (Roberts, 1990)

The action described in the example is destructive. In other words, the subject annihilates the object (reflexive pronoun proper).

 

• They indicate the change of position, state, appearance or other actions of an everyday character.

She grabbed hold of my arm so she could lift herself from her wooden stool to hug me. (FIC, 2018)

To encourage Miss Coralee to eat, she would pour herself a handful of raisins and eat them thoughtfully, one by one (Norrí & Helen, 1990)

 

• They also describe feelings, emotions and states. When the subject and a reflexive pronoun are in predicate relation to each other, the sentence acquires a new connotation: to be in a normal state of health or not influenced by others. In this case, a full confluence between the subject and the object is expressed.

Fey didn’t seem himself, from his day-to-day outlook to his absent-mindedness. (Baca, 2013)

 

2. Emphatic Reflexive Pronouns

Emphatic pronouns (intensifiers) can be identified as the class of self-forms with an emphatic use (König, Ekkehard &Gast, 2002).

• Syntactical properties of the emphatic reflexive pronouns

As mentioned, emphatic reflexive pronouns are used to accentuate the element of the utterance it is co-referent with. Similar to reflexive pronouns proper, they usually occur in the same clause as their antecedents. They often follow their co-referent noun phrases. However, most linguists find that the position of the emphatic pronouns does not imply any substantial change of semantic meaning.

In other words, they possess flexibility in terms of position and can be found in different places in the sentence. Still, there is hardly any discernable semantic difference resulted from the change in the position.

Quirk and Greenbaum in 1978 also demonstrated the fact that almost no difference in the following sentences:

I’ve never been there myself.

I have never been there.

I have never myself been there.

• Semantic properties of the emphatic reflexive pronouns

   Compared to the reflexive pronouns proper, emphatic reflexive pronouns are more restricted in terms of semantics as they are required to combine with other elements to carry out its function. Further, it is also limited to the element of the utterance they are co-referent with when imparting emphasis. An examination of the semantics of emphatic reflexive pronouns reveals that they are used to indicate:

2.2.1 The subject of the action acts alone, without any help.

The pronoun is then often used in combination with all and by

And on the other hand, I did- I made my decision all by myself that I would not be deployed and whether I was a conscientious objector or not was of main importance to me at all. (SPOK, 1990)

• The subject’s participation in the action or witnessing it personally

“I’ve come to see him myself.” (Wodehouse, 1998)

• Confirmation of the actualization of the action by a certain person, to exclude any doubt or lack of trust or back the speaker’s statement.

You said yourself that you had interviewed rapists. (BLOG, 2012)

Then, in the last month, Trump himself announced impending immigration operations over Twitter.  (NEWS, 2019)

Often in such cases, famous persons or professionals are quoted to give more weight and support to what the speaker is saying.

• Actions take place in out of the ordinary, never thought of or expected manner, often used with the adverb even.

She dashed these words off halfheartedly, surprising even herself with the sting of her sarcasm. (Scott, 2019)

 

• RECOMMENDATIONS & CONCLUSION

In light of the limitations in the scope of the study, future research papers on the related topics with detailed analysis on a variety of samples are also highly recommended.

The study has pointed out functional differences between the two uses of reflexive pronouns as well as the specific structural and semantic features these two reveal in the constructions they make part of. Study shows that structures with reflexive pronouns functioning as indicators of reflexivity are diverse both semantically and structurally, in contrast to reflexives used for emphasis which are somewhat limited in syntax and semantics. This is because their primary function is to intensify, and there is hardly any substantial change of semantic meaning when placed in different positions of a sentence. It should also be noted that the speakers’ role when employing self-pronouns must be taken into consideration as their intentions act as the basis on which the distinctions exist.

Hopefully, our paper has provided a deeper understanding of the structure and semantics of reflexive pronouns in English and contributed to the growing body of research into reflexive pronouns and other uses of self-forms.