Investigating the Use and Effect of Concrete in Modern Construction 6
INVESTIGATING THE USE AND EFFECT OF CONCRETE IN MODERN CONSTRUCTION
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Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction 5
1.1 Background Information 5
1.2 The Research Problem 6
1.3 Study Justification 6
1.4 Hypothesis 7
1.5 Aim 7
Objectives 7
2.0 Literature Review 8
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Industry overview 10
2.3 Concrete and Environment 10
2.4 The future of concrete 11
3.0 Methodology 13
3.1 Introduction 13
3.2 Research Design 13
3.2.1 Quantitative Data 13
3.2.2 Qualitative Data 14
3.3 Data Analysis 14
3.3.1 Qualitative Data Analysis 14
3.4 Research Philosophy 14
3.5 Ethical Consideration 14
3.6 Limitation of Study 15
3.7 Sampling 15
3.8 Work Plan 17
References 18
Appendix 1 Ethical Consideration Checklist 22
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background Information
Concrete is an engineering material that possesses the features and properties of a rock. It is an assortment of particles bound together closely usually gravel and natural sand or crushed rock. The binding among these components is achieved through a hydraulic binder, for example, the Portland cement and then its water activated to form a dense semi-homogenous mass (Mehta and Monteiro 2017).
According to Nielsen and Hoang (2016), concrete is very strong because it possesses the features of artificial rock and therefore, can resist compression; it can also resist tensile stresses when reinforced appropriately. Concrete allows flexibility due to its ability to be crafted into different shapes. These properties have elevated concrete as the widely produced and used material for construction in the world. The societal need for housing, shelter, schools and other forms of infrastructure makes the demand for concrete irreplaceable today and in the foreseeable future. Concrete as a raw material can be produced locally nearly everywhere on the planet.
Concrete is responsible for the release of 5% annual anthropogenic carbon footprints (Schaefer et al. 2018). Schaefer et al. (2018) also show that 99% of concrete that cracks is attributed to other factors of construction other than material as delivered. It is cheap compared to the construction material per 1m3 and far much durable. Concrete has elastic properties with its ready-mixed brand currently having over 2000 recipes in the UK market. The study, therefore, purposes to better the construction industry through appropriate fiscal responsibility, proper environmental leadership, innovation while putting human consumption of concrete.
1.2 The Research Problem
Even though concrete has been around for a while and has been instrumental to the economic growth of the UK, there are still a lot that could be achieved in terms of science and engineering, planning and suitability, social progress, economic growth while ensuring minimal carbon footprint to the environment aligned with the global carbon emissions policy. Therefore, there is the need for a holistic strategy that allows that the breakthroughs in concrete science are translated and applied into innovative engineering works, there is also a need to ensure the implementation of environmental-econometric impact studies for sustainable development.
1.3 Study Justification
Concrete is a fundamental part of human life. It is useful in crafting both human housing as well as the infrastructure that connects humanity. The human population is rising rapidly, with a majority living in the cities. According to the report by the United Nations, about 70% of the world’s population is expected to live in the cities (9 billion people) (CShub. 2019).
This study, therefore, is purposed to highlight on the need and gaps that require addressing to enable smart decisions for the massive call for urbanisation in terms of public transport, housing and other accompanying infrastructure.
Another aspect is the product manufacturing industry, the study through its industry analysis will able to provide relevant information about key markets statistics to the industry players for proper decisions regarding key markets, external market environment and industry performance. Thus, the study should go along in ensuring that concrete plays a vital role in meeting the growing population. Additionally, it should enable the suitability, and the importance of concrete is attained.
1.4 Hypothesis
There is no relationship between concrete use in construction and environmental pollution.
1.5 Aim
The research aims to investigate the uses and effects of concrete, as a major raw material in modern construction, on both the environment and human beings, from the point of development up to when it is used as a building material.
Objectives
To determine the rate of concrete utilisation and evaluate its environmental and health effects on the population.
To estimate the preference of concrete use as a building material by engineers in construction work over a defined duration of time.
To assess the set policies by the government to govern the use of concrete and its effect.
To investigate whether concrete is the most sustainable building material
To assess the demand and supply effects of concrete in the London market?
2.0 Literature Review
This section uses books, journals and other online sources to provide relevant information in line with the study objective. Even though there is a significant lack of literature, the research adopted a few existing studies, journals and book in addition to the internet sources for relevant information with substantial borrowing from the study by Mehta and Monteiro (2017) among others which were also considered. The following section, therefore, gives an introduction to concrete, the market scenario in the UK, highlights the environmental impacts of concrete and looks into the future of concrete.
2.1 Introduction
Van Miller (2017) defines concrete as a compound made up of water, Portland cement and aggregate (sand, gravel or rock). Cement acts as a binding agent in the mixture; water is useful for activating the mixture inducing hardening. The concrete mix can then be moulded into the desired structure, which then hardens. The reports also identify other binding materials other than cement as lime and bitumen. These are used to form lime concrete and asphalt.
According to Grosse, Reinhardt and Dahm (1997), there are two types of concrete mixes, the design mis and the normal mix. In a normal mix, popularly the proportions of water, aggregates and cement are 1:2:4 ratio. The mix is primarily useful for normal construction works like a sizable or small residential house. On the other hand, the design mix is backed up by an array of lab tests on cubes or cylinders for compressive strengths depending on the design of the structure. The selected ratios are then used to guide the mixing of the ingredients through either hand mixing or machine mixing. The method of the mixture is, however, very depended to the required actual quantity (Mehta and Monteiro 2017).
The hand mixing is done using the hand tools on ingredients on a flat surface; water is added to the components during the mixing process. The process also used machines on some occasions. Machine mixing employs various types of machines. The machines are fed with the right ingredient proportions after which the machine produces freshly prepared concrete. The concrete produced from either of the methods is transported and poured into already made formworks for a specified period based on the structure category for hardening to achieve the desired strength. Formwork is stripped off after hardening is achieved, curing is done for at least seven days to ensure the right moisture content for hydration reaction that helps achieve further strength (Celik et al. 2015; Mehta and Monteiro 2017).
Cellic et al. (2015) assert that concrete is employed primarily in two categories of constrictions, the reinforced concrete construction (RCC) and the plain concrete construction (PCC). The RCC structures are subject to bending and therefore require reinforcements for withstanding both the compressional and tensional forces. Conversely, the PCC structural members are not subject to tensional forces but compressional forces, therefore, the concrete is poured and cast without reinforcements.
Another study by Mehta and Monteiro (2017) argues that when the elements of a given structure such as beams, columns, pipes, roofs among others that have exposure to moisture and made of steel reinforced. They assert that, that a reinforced concrete comprises of still bars designed in an assumption that concrete and still will act together for the structural member support. The two others also argue that another form; prestressed concrete is a structural member that is pre-exposed to predetermined, engineering stresses to counteract the stresses that occur when they are subject to loading (Mehta and Monteiro 2017). Either way, concrete is useful in nearly all structural menders, including buildings, bridges, dams, tunnels, roads, industrial structures, among other structures (Hilloulin et al. 2015). The figure 1 below represents the process of concrete preparation through to use during construction.
Fig 1. Concrete Preparation Process
Source: (Hilloulin et al. 2015)
2.2 Industry overview
According to the report by IBISWorld (2018), the UK construction industry has witnessed an annual growth of 7.6% since 2014, it has attracted over 552 big businesses and SMEs and employs nearly 17,000 individuals. The construction industry accounts for £3.1 bn. The UK construction industry is expected to experience slow revenue growth as a result of long lead time on commercial construction projects. However, the number of enterprises is forecast to increase attributed to the rise of infrastructure market demand.
According to Global Cement (2017), the post Brexit period experienced a fall in construction output of between 3.6% and 4.5%. However, current reports indicate an upward trajectory across the industry including, supply chain, SMEs, largest contractors, albeit at a slower rate that pre-Brexit. The forecast depicts a steady rise in construction material requirement to 2.3% in 2019. This growth is attributed to a 28% increase in infrastructural activity with 6.1% being from the private house constructions.
2.3 Concrete and Environment
Mehta and Monteiro (2017) assert that concrete manufacturing and application is a complex activity which is attached to several environmental impacts. The cement which forms part of concrete is produced from an industry that emits carbon dioxide greenhouse gas. Concrete causes damage to the topsoil; its ability to create hard surfaces can also cause surface runoff resulting in soil erosion. Conversely, concrete is useful for construction of structures usable for flood water; mudflows control through damming, deflection and diversions. The urban heat highland effects can be controlled by the aid of the light-coloured concrete, which as considerably high amounts of albedo.
Another major issue highlighted by Mehta (2002) is the problem of concrete dust resulting from the demolition of structural members or as a result of a natural calamity is a major cause of air pollution. The subcomponents of concrete are also a threat; they can cause health hazards due to toxicity, some are even linked to natural radioactivity, for instance, the elements like U, K, Th and Rn which form part of concrete. Another argument is the essential nature of wet concrete; it should be handled using protective equipment to avoid health hazards. There is also the issue of concrete recycling; it argued that it’s a critical response to economic considerations, legal concerns as well as improved environmental awareness concerns. Concrete is, however, is a replacement for wood- a carbon sink because of its durability and strength (de Larrard and Colina 2019).
2.4 The future of concrete
As mentioned earlier, the concrete industry is a large producer of carbon dioxide, reaching up to 5% of global human-made emission. This emission results from cement manufacture and the combustion of fossil fuels as a source of energy (Schaefer et al. 2018). To address these environmental issues, there have been growing interests from all the sectors, including, industrial and academic sectors.
Current research suggests that the carbon emission due to energy during heating while manufacturing cement could be cut down by replacing elite with belite with a lower energy requirement and far much stronger once concrete cures in the clinker-forming process. This is still work in progress to try to solve the puzzle posed by belite that takes a long time for settlement a time when the concrete is vulnerable for quite a while. Another proposal in the use of impurities like magnesium that speeds up the curing process (Hewlett and Liska 2019)
Other researches also propose a new kind of cement production a design that supposedly alleviating air pollution by breaking down pollutants that encounter the concrete due to the presence of titanium dioxide in the concrete mixture. However, the financial viability of such cement is questionable, given the high level of pollution available for absorption by the unique material. Another method proposed is the absorption of CO2 at the process of curing using admixtures, caution, however, must be put regarding alkalinity loss leading to corrosion of reinforcements. Improvements are expected in these proposals (Shen et al. 2019).
The study by D’Alessandro et al. (2015) has proposed the manufacture of “smart concrete” that use electrical and mechanical signals to respond to changes in loading conditions. This can be achieved using carbon fibre reinforcements useful for strain measurements using the electrical responses; the design helps monitor the integrity of structures without the applications of sensors. Another fantastic innovation is the waterless concrete which uses sulfur as a non-reactive binder, allowing for the construction of structures in environments with no or very little water. These share all characteristics of the standard concrete apart from the fact that they gain strength faster than regular concrete.
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
The methodology is the chapter that provides research work with philosophy, values and assumptions which gives the researcher the foundation of conducting research as well as the parameters that will be used for interpretation of information and coming up with conclusion ( Almalki S. 2016 p,1). The methodology gives means and form in which the research will be done and pinpoint the method to be used in addressing specific questions. The study will take place in construction site concrete is used, and in companies, concrete is manufactured. This research will use both primary and second data. Primary data will be obtained through the use of a questionnaire, focus group discussion, and direct observation from the site of the study. Secondary data will be collected from, hospitals records, concrete construction company, a construction company that use concrete, scholarly journal articles and books.
3.2 Research Design
Usually, the research design is connected with the aim of the study, which is the main purpose of the study. This research will use a descriptive design where it will employ observational study and sample survey. The main tool that will be used during the sample survey to collect data is the questionnaire. This research will employ some research assistants who will help me collect data from different sectors.
3.2.1 Quantitative Data
Quantitative data will be collected through surveys, with closed-ended questions. The personal interview will also be done to senior officers in the construction site and use of a focus group where people will be many.
3.2.2 Qualitative Data
Qualitative data will be collected through a comparison of information in the questionnaires, focus group and personal interview.
3.3 Data Analysis
Data analysis will be analysed in two different forms, in qualitative form and quantitative form. Statistical analysis will be done using STATA, using data that will have been collected. The mixed methods approach is essential in ensuring the attainment of conclusive results.
3.3.1 Qualitative Data Analysis
The strategy does not involve more of mathematical calculations, because it mostly deals with feelings, emotions, colour, sound, words and other more elements that are non-quantifiable (Creswell, 2013). The primary function of qualitative data analysis is to ensure there is a deeper understanding of the project.
3.4 Research Philosophy
The data on this research will be collected through closed-end questionnaire, personal interview, observation and focus group discussion. The main aim of this study is to carefully analyse the use and effect of concrete in the construction industry. The study also aims to create awareness on the majority of people working with the concrete during construction and the need to develop and absorb new technology in the construction area.
3.5 Ethical Consideration
The research will focus on the uses and effects of concrete as a building material on the environment and human beings. The data will be collected through the use of a questionnaire, from the focus group and individual basis, voluntarily, and the data will be handled with a lot of confidentiality.
3.6 Limitation of Study
The nature of the study provides a challenge since companies may not be willing to provide confidential information. Mainly, it is associated with the aspect of intellectual property. The project may be costly, considering the dynamics that are associated with the entire process.
3.7 Sampling
In a simple sampling technique, each is selected by chance, and all members of the population have an equal probability of being selected. This sampling technic reduces selection biases where the entire individual has a probability of being selected. It works well when every person is willing to participate, and the chances are few (Rees, 2018). Simple sampling also allows sampling error to be calculated and thus, in all sampling methods, it is the most straight forward method of sampling.
In cluster sampling the population is divided into subgroups as sampling units, these groups are the one known as a cluster. The clusters are then randomly selected to be included in the study (Rees, 2018). This method works well in the construction site, where there are usually many workers dealing with concrete.
The sample size will be determined using below formulae
The sample size will be arrived at using the
Following formula:
n = NC2 ÷ C2 + (N-1) e2
(Note: n=sample size; N=population size;
C=Coefficient of variation which is ≤ 30%;
e=margin of error which is fixed between 2-5%).
The study sample was calculated at 25%
Coefficient of variation and 5% margin of error (Nassiuma, 2000).
3.8 Work Plan
Proposed Research Activity
IMPLEMENTATION PERIOD
May
2019
May
2019
May
2019
June
2019
June 2019
July
2019
July
2019
Aug 2019
Aug 2019
Aug 2019
Identification of research Problem Statement and Proposal Development
Project Proposal Submission, Defense at the department and Review (comments and corrections)
Project Proposal Presentation at the Faculty
Assemble requirements for the study and conduct a pilot study
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Consultation
Report Writing
Report Submission
Thesis defence
References
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Al-Ayish, N., 2017. Environmental Impact of concrete structures with a focus on durability and resource efficiency: doctoral dissertation, Kungliga Tekniska högskolan.
Almalki, S., 2016. Integrating quantitative and qualitative data in mixed methods research–challenges and benefits. Journal of Education and Learning, 5(3), pp. 288-296.
Celik, K., Meral, C., Gursel, A.P., Mehta, P.K., Horvath, A. and Monteiro, P.J., 2015. Mechanical properties, durability, and life-cycle assessment of self-consolidating concrete mixtures made with blended Portland cement containing fly ash and limestone powder. Cement and Concrete Composites, 56, pp.59-72
Creswell, J.W., 2014. Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approach (4th ed. International Student Edition) Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.
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D’Alessandro, A., Ubertini, F., Laflamme, S. and Materazzi, A.L., 2015. Towards smart concrete for smart cities: Recent results and future application of strain-sensing nanocomposites. Journal of Smart Cities, 1(1), p.3.
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Appendix 1 Ethical Consideration Checklist
The research will be carried out faithfully without exaggeration of aims and objectives.
The research participant and assistant will be treated with care; during the research, no one will be harmed.
This research will respect the dignity of research participants
This research will keep the secrecy and privacy of individuals where information will be sourced
In this research, all forms of funding, as well as any possible of interested parties, will be declared
This research will be purely scientific and misleading information, and kind of biases will be evaded at any cost
This research will keep the confidentiality of research data.
Participation in the research will be on a voluntary level, and any participant can leave at his/her on will.