Respiratory system

Respiratory system

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1. Distinguish between conducting and respiratory zone structures. Give examples.

The conducting zone is most of the respiratory tract that conducts gases in and out of the lungs but excludes the respiratory zone that exchanges the gases. It comprises everything from the nose to the bronchioles. The respiratory zone is the site of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, in and out of the blood, including bronchioles and alveoli.

2. Describe the makeup of the respiratory membrane, and relate structure to function.

The alveoli walls are composed of single layer squamous epithelial cells, known as type 1cells, covered by a fragile basement membrane. The outer surfaces of the alveoli are heavily covered with a “cobweb” of pulmonary capillaries. The type II cells secrete a fluid with a detergent-like substance known as a surfactant, which coats the exposed gas and secrets antimicrobial proteins that are significant elements of innate immunity.

3. Explain the functional importance of the partial vacuum that exists in the intrapleural space.

Intrapleural pressure refers to the pressure in the pleural cavity, and it rises and falls during respiration. The pleural fluid in the pleural cavity must remain minimal for the negative Pip to maintain. The pleural fluid is actively pumped out of the pleural cavity into the lymphatic constantly avoid positive pressure in the pleural cavity.

4. Relate Boyle’s law to events of inspiration and expiration.

It states that at a constant temperature, the gas’s pressure varies inversely with its volume, i.e., P1V1=P2V2. In large volume, the gas molecule will be far apart hence low pressure, and if the volume is reduced, the gas molecule will be compressed, and the pressure will increase.

5. Describe the physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation.
6. Air resistance- increased resistance leads to decreased airflow.
7. Alveolar surface tension- because of the high amount of water in alveoli sides, needs to stick together, and the surfactant contains lipids and proteins that reduce the surface tension of water.

• Lung compliance- distensibility of lungs

6. State and explain Dalton’s law of partial pressures and Henry’s law.

Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressure exerted by each gas in the mixture. Henry’s law states that when a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, every gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure.

7. Describe how atmospheric and alveolar air differs in composition and explain these differences.

The air is composed of N₂-79%, O₂-21%, and CO₂-0.04%. The alveoli have much less oxygen of 14% and more carbon dioxide of 5%. The difference is that the gas exchanges are happening in the lung B O₂ are diffusing from the alveoli into the pulmonary blood, and CO₂ is diffusing in the opposite direction.

8. Relate Dalton’s and Henry’s laws to events of external and internal respiration. Specifically, list the factors that influence the gas exchange during these two events.

Pulmonary gas exchange- O₂ enters the blood in the lungs, and the partial pressure gradient and solubility influence CO2 leaves and the movement of these gases. There is a steep gradient of PO2 across the respiratory membrane, and consequently, O₂ diffuses rapidly from the alveoli into the lung capillaries. The partial pressure of CO₂ is much less steep, and even though it’s more soluble in plasma than O₂, they are exchanged at an equal rate.

Capillary gas exchange in the body tissue- the partial pressure and diffusion gradient are reversed in the body tissues, and due to their metabolic activities, cells continuously use O₂ and produce an equal volume of CO₂. The PO@ in the tissue is always lower than in the systemic arterial blood; hence O₂ diffuses faster from the blood into the tissues. CO₂ moves in the opposite direction along its partial pressure gradient.

9. Compare and contrast the influences of arterial pH, arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, lung reflexes, volition, and emotions on respiratory rate and depth.

Substances in the blood plasma react with excess CO2, and an increase in rate and depth of breathing speeds up the rate at which CO2 is removed from the bloodstream.

10. Compare the causes and consequences of chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, tuberculosis, and lung cancer.

Chronic bronchitis results in excessive production of mucus and inflammation and fibrosis of the lower respiratory mucosa.

Emphysema is characterized by permanently enlarged alveoli and deterioration of alveolar walls.

TB is an infectious disease caused by a bacteria called mycobacterium tuberculosis and spread by inhalation and coughing.

Asthma is characterized by dyspnea, coughing, wheezing, and chest tightness, caused by airways’ active inflammation.

Lung cancer is strongly correlated with smoking. Squamous cell carcinoma arises in the bronchi’s epithelium and tends to form masses that hollow out and bleed.

11. CO2 is a byproduct of cellular respiration. The more glucose consumed and ATP made, the more CO2 will be made, and the more that will be removed from the body. Use your text to guide and explain what happens to CO2 as it leaves a systemic cell and enters a red blood cell. Be specific in terms of:
12. What chemical reactions take place (name the reactants and products for each step)

During cellular, the glucose molecule is gradually broken down into CO2 and water. ATP is produced directly in reactions that transform glucose, and more ATP is produced in a process known as oxidative phosphorylation.

2. How is CO2 transported in the blood (what form or forms)?

CO2 is transported in the blood in three ways: (i) dissolved in solution, (ii) buffered with water as carbonic acid, and (iii) bound to protein, specifically hemoglobin. Three-quarters of it are transported in a red blood cell and a quarter in the plasma.

3. What are the chemical reactions that take place when CO2 is offloaded in the lungs?

CO2 + H2O –> H2CO3 –> H+ + HCO3

12. Increasing the pressure on a gas above a liquid: Group of answer choices
13. Decreases the solubility of other gases as they come into contact with the liquid
14. Increases the volume of the container the liquid is in
15. Increases its ability to be dissolved in the liquid
16. Decreases its ability to be dissolved in a liquid
17. According to Dalton’s law, the pressure of the gasses in a mixture is equal to:
18. The sum of each gas in the mixture
19. The pressure that would be exerted regardless of container volume
20. The pressure that would be exerted regardless of temperature
21. The sum of the gas in the greatest quantity added to the gas in the least quantity
22. CO2 + H2O <-> ???? <-> HCO3- + H+ What is the missing part of this equation? Group of answer choices
23. Hydrochloric acid
24. Bicarbonate
25. Calcium Chloride
26. Carbonic acid
27. The loading of oxygen onto an RBC in the pulmonary capillary is driven by:
28. The low pressure of the oxygen gas in the alveoli
29. The concentration difference between the alveoli Oxygen and the Oxygen concentration of the RBC as it enters the capillary bed
30. The affinity of HCO3- for hemoglobin
31. The offloading of CO2
32. According to Boyle’s law, as the volume inside a container increases, the pressure ___________. Group of answer choices
33. Initially decreases, then it increases
34. Increases
35. Decreases
36. Initially increases then it decreases
37. Oxygen transported from the lungs to the tissue cells of the body, and carbon dioxide is transported from the tissue cells to the lungs; describe:
38. External respiration
39. Pulmonary ventilation
40. Transport of respiratory gases
41. Internal respiration
42. The trachea has all three layers common to tubular body organs, including the mucosa, submucosa, adventitia, and additional layer of:
43. Fibrocartilage
44. Reticular connective tissue
45. Elastic cartilage
46. Hyaline cartilage
47. The total amount of air that can be inspired after normal tidal volume expiration is the:
48. Functional residual capacity
49. Inspiratory capacity
50. Total lung capacity
51. Vital capacity
52. Which of the following is not one of the widely accepted explanations for the abrupt increase in ventilation that occurs as exercise begins?
53. Psychological stimuli
54. Excitatory impulses reaching respiratory centers from proprioceptors in moving muscles, tendons, and joints
55. Emotional stimuli
56. Simultaneous cortical motor activation of skeletal muscles and respiratory centers